Background: MXenes and Graphene possess outstanding physicochemical properties.
They have strong application potential in electronics, energy storage, and
biomedicine.
Challenge: Current nanoparticle regulations present critical gaps, particularly in human
health risk assessment. There is a growing need for Safe and Sustainable by
Design (SSbD) aligned evaluation strategies.
Aim: To bridge the in vitro–in vivo gap in nanosafety research.
Approach: Advanced in vitro models, including static and dynamic 3D cellular systems,
were applied and compared to conventional 2D cultures.
Impact: These methodologies offer promising tools for improving the hazard
assessment of 2D-nanomaterials, such as MXenes.
