The Role of Dynamic 3D Models in Evaluating MXenes Toxicity: A Focus on Pulmonary and Hepatic Cells

Abstract

Background: MXenes and Graphene possess outstanding physicochemical properties. They have strong application potential in electronics, energy storage, and biomedicine. Challenge: Current nanoparticle regulations present critical gaps, particularly in human health risk assessment. There is a growing need for Safe and Sustainable by Design (SSbD) aligned evaluation strategies. Aim: To bridge the in vitro–in vivo gap in nanosafety research. Approach: Advanced in vitro models, including static and dynamic 3D cellular systems, were applied and compared to conventional 2D cultures. Impact: These methodologies offer promising tools for improving the hazard assessment of 2D-nanomaterials, such as MXenes.